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Chapter 1 Preliminaries 1
1.1 Reasons for Studying Concepts of Programming Languages ...............2
1.2 Programming Domains .....................................................................5
1.3 Language Evaluation Criteria ............................................................7
1.4 Influences on Language Design .......................................................19
1.5 Language Categories .......................................................................22
1.6 Language Design Trade-Offs ............................................................24
1.7 Implementation Methods ................................................................25
1.8 Programming Environments ............................................................32
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set .............................................33
Chapter 2 Evolution of the Major Programming Languages 37
2.1 Zuse’s Plankalkül ...........................................................................38
2.2 Minimal Hardware Programming: Pseudocodes ...............................41
2.3 The IBM 704 and Fortran ..............................................................44
2.4 Functional Programming: LISP ......................................................49
2.5 The First Step Toward Sophistication: ALGOL 60 ............................54
2.6 Computerizing Business Records: COBOL ........................................60
2.7 The Beginnings of Timesharing: BASIC ............................................65
Interview: ALAN COOPER–User Design and Language Design..................68
2.8 Everything for Everybody: PL/I .......................................................70
2.9 Two Early Dynamic Languages: APL and SNOBOL .........................73
2.10 The Beginnings of Data Abstraction: SIMULA 67 ............................74
2.11 Orthogonal Design: ALGOL 68 ........................................................75
2.12 Some Early Descendants of the ALGOLs ......................................... 77
2.13 Programming Based on Logic: Prolog ............................................. 81
2.14 History’s Largest Design Effort: Ada .............................................. 83
2.15 Object-Oriented Programming: Smalltalk ........................................ 87
2.16 Combining Imperative and Object-Oriented Features: C++ ................ 90
2.17 An Imperative-Based Object-Oriented Language: Java ...................... 93
2.18 Scripting Languages ....................................................................... 97
2.19 A C-Based Language for the New Millennium: C# ......................... 103
2.20 Markup/Programming Hybrid Languages ....................................... 106
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises..... 108
Chapter 3 Describing Syntax and Semantics 115
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 116
3.2 The General Problem of Describing Syntax .................................... 117
3.3 Formal Methods of Describing Syntax ........................................... 119
3.4 Attribute Grammars ..................................................................... 134
History Note......................................................................................... 135
3.5 Describing the Meanings of Programs: Dynamic Semantics ............ 141
History Note........................................................................................ 156
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set ...........163
Chapter 4 Lexical and Syntax Analysis 171
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 172
4.2 Lexical Analysis ........................................................................... 173
4.3 The Parsing Problem .................................................................... 182
4.4 Recursive-Descent Parsing ............................................................ 185
4.5 Bottom-Up Parsing ...................................................................... 194
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises......202
Chapter 5 Names, Bindings, and Scopes 207
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 208
5.2 Names ......................................................................................... 208
History Note.........................................................................................209
History Note.........................................................................................210
5.3 Variables ......................................................................................211
History Note.........................................................................................212
5.4 The Concept of Binding .................................................................214
Interview: RASMUS LERDORF–Scripting Languages and Other Examples of Slick Solutions .......218
5.5 Scope ...........................................................................................225
History Note.........................................................................................227
5.6 Scope and Lifetime .......................................................................234
5.7 Referencing Environments .............................................................235
5.8 Named Constants ........................................................................237
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ... 239
Chapter 6 Data Types 247
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................248
6.2 Primitive Data Types .....................................................................250
6.3 Character String Types ..................................................................254
History Note.........................................................................................255
6.4 User-Defined Ordinal Types ............................................................259
6.5 Array Types ..................................................................................263
History Note.........................................................................................264
History Note.........................................................................................267
6.6 Associative Arrays ........................................................................277
Interview: ROBERTO IERUSALIMSCHY–Lua ................................280
6.7 Record Types ................................................................................282
6.8 Union Types ..................................................................................287
6.9 Pointer and Reference Types ..........................................................291
History Note.........................................................................................294
6.10 Type Checking ..............................................................................304
6.11 Strong Typing ...............................................................................305
6.12 Type Equivalence ..........................................................................306
6.13 Theory and Data Types .................................................................. 310
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ......312
Chapter 7 Expressions and Assignment Statements 319
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 320
7.2 Arithmetic Expressions ................................................................. 321
7.3 Overloaded Operators ................................................................... 330
7.4 Type Conversions .......................................................................... 331
History Note......................................................................................... 334
7.5 Relational and Boolean Expressions .............................................. 335
History Note......................................................................................... 335
7.6 Short-Circuit Evaluation .............................................................. 337
7.7 Assignment Statements ................................................................ 339
History Note......................................................................................... 343
7.8 Mixed-Mode Assignment .............................................................. 343
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises .... 344
Chapter 8 Statement-Level Control Structures 349
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 350
8.2 Selection Statements .................................................................... 352
History Note......................................................................................... 352
History Note......................................................................................... 354
8.3 Iterative Statements ..................................................................... 365
History Note......................................................................................... 365
Interview: LARRY WALL–Part 1: Linguistics and the Birth of Perl ........ 370
History Note......................................................................................... 378
8.4 Unconditional Branching .............................................................. 380
8.5 Guarded Commands ..................................................................... 381
8.6 Conclusions .................................................................................. 383
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises..... 384
Chapter 9 Subprograms 391
9.1 Introduction .................................................................................392
9.2 Fundamentals of Subprograms ......................................................392
9.3 Design Issues for Subprograms .....................................................403
9.4 Local Referencing Environments ...................................................404
9.5 Parameter-Passing Methods .........................................................406
Interview: LARRY WALL–Part 2: Scripting Languages in General and Perl in Particular ........408
History Note.........................................................................................416
History Note.........................................................................................416
History Note.........................................................................................420
9.6 Parameters That Are Subprograms ................................................427
History Note.........................................................................................429
9.7 Overloaded Subprograms ..............................................................429
9.8 Generic Subprograms ...................................................................431
9.9 Design Issues for Functions ...........................................................438
9.10 User-Defined Overloaded Operators ...............................................439
9.11 Coroutines ....................................................................................440
History Note.........................................................................................440
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises .....442
Chapter 10 Implementing Subprograms 449
10.1 The General Semantics of Calls and Returns .................................450
10.2 Implementing “Simple” Subprograms ..........................................451
10.3 Implementing Subprograms with Stack-Dynamic Local Variables ...............453
10.4 Nested Subprograms ...................................................................462
Interview: NIKLAUS WIRTH–Keeping It Simple ............................464
10.5 Blocks ........................................................................................470
10.6 Implementing Dynamic Scoping ...................................................472
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ....475
Chapter 11 Abstract Data Types and Encapsulation Constructs 481
11.1 The Concept of Abstraction ......................................................... 482
11.2 Introduction to Data Abstraction ................................................. 483
11.3 Design Issues for Abstract Data Types .......................................... 486
11.4 Language Examples .................................................................... 487
Interview: BJARNE STROUSTRUP–C++: Its Birth, Its Ubiquitousness, and Common Criticisms ....... 490
11.5 Parameterized Abstract Data Types .............................................. 504
11.6 Encapsulation Constructs ............................................................ 508
11.7 Naming Encapsulations ............................................................... 512
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises .... 517
Chapter 12 Support for Object-Oriented Programming 523
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 524
12.2 Object-Oriented Programming ...................................................... 524
12.3 Design Issues for Object-Oriented Languages ................................ 527
12.4 Support for Object-Oriented Programming in Smalltalk ................ 532
12.5 Support for Object-Oriented Programming in C++ ........................ 535
Interview: BJARNE STROUSTRUP–On Paradigms and Better Programming ........ 536
12.6 Support for Object-Oriented Programming in Java ........................ 546
12.7 Support for Object-Oriented Programming in C# .......................... 550
12.8 Support for Object-Oriented Programming in Ada 95 .................... 552
12.9 Support for Object-Oriented Programming in Ruby........................ 557
12.10 Implementation of Object-Oriented Constructs .............................. 560
Summary • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises..... 564
Chapter 13 Concurrency 569
13.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 570
13.2 Introduction to Subprogram-Level Concurrency ............................ 574
History Note ....................................................................................... 577
13.3 Semaphores ................................................................................ 578
13.4 Monitors .....................................................................................583
13.5 Message Passing .........................................................................585
13.6 Ada Support for Concurrency .......................................................587
13.7 Java Threads ...............................................................................598
13.8 C# Threads ..................................................................................606
13.9 Statement-Level Concurrency ......................................................608
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises .....610
Chapter 14 Exception Handling and Event Handling 615
14.1 Introduction to Exception Handling ..............................................616
History Note........................................................................................620
14.2 Exception Handling in Ada ..........................................................622
14.3 Exception Handling in C++ ..........................................................629
14.4 Exception Handling in Java ..........................................................634
Interview: JAMES GOSLING–The Birth of Java .............................636
14.5 Introduction to Event Handling ....................................................643
14.6 Event Handling with Java ............................................................644
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ..... 650
Chapter 15 Functional Programming Languages 655
15.1 Introduction ................................................................................656
15.2 Mathematical Functions ..............................................................657
15.3 Fundamentals of Functional Programming Languages ..................659
15.4 The First Functional Programming Language: LISP .....................661
15.5 An Introduction to Scheme ..........................................................664
15.6 COMMON LISP ..........................................................................682
15.7 ML .............................................................................................682
15.8 Haskell .......................................................................................686
15.9 Applications of Functional Languages ..........................................691
15.10 A Comparison of Functional and Imperative Languages ................692
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises ....694
Chapter 16 Logic Programming Languages 701
16.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 702
16.2 A Brief Introduction to Predicate Calculus ................................... 702
16.3 Predicate Calculus and Proving Theorems .................................... 706
16.4 An Overview of Logic Programming ............................................. 708
16.5 The Origins of Prolog .................................................................. 710
16.6 The Basic Elements of Prolog ...................................................... 711
16.7 Deficiencies of Prolog .................................................................. 725
16.8 Applications of Logic Programming ............................................ 731
Summary • Bibliographic Notes • Review Questions • Problem Set • Programming Exercises.... 733
Bibliography ...............................................................................737
Index ..........................................................................................747
Robert Sebesta is an Associate Professor in the Computer Science Department at the University of Colorado, Colorado Springs. Professor Sebesta received a BS in applied mathematics from the University of Colorado, Boulder, and MS and PhD degrees in computer science from the Pennsylvania State University. His professional interests are the design and evaluation of programming languages, compiler design, and software testing methods and tools. He is the author of Addison-Wesley’s Concepts of Programming Languages and Programming the World Wide Web.
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