Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Abbreviations xxiii
1 Climatology of the Tropical Atmosphere and Upper Ocean 1
1.1 The Growth of Tropical Meteorology 1
1.2 Seasonal Characteristics 4
1.3 Macro-Scale Circulations 16
1.4 A Myriad of Variability 24
Notes 34
2 Hydrological and Heat Exchange Processes 37
2.1 Water on Earth 38
2.2 Thermodynamics of Water and Earth’s Climate 39
2.3 Water and the Tropical System 43
2.4 Buoyancy, Differential Buoyancy, and the Generation of Horizontal Body Forces 50
2.5 Integrated Column Heating 53
2.6 Buoyancy in the Tropical Ocean 57
2.8 Convection–SST Relationships and the Vertical Scale of Tropical Motions 68
2.9 Coupled Global Ocean–Atmosphere Synergies 70
2.10 Synthesis 73
Notes 73
3 Fundamental Processes 77
3.1 Some Fundamentals of Low-Latitude Atmospheric Dynamics 79
3.2 Dynamics of the Low-Latitude Upper Ocean 91
Notes 104
4 Kinematics of Equatorial Waves 107
4.1 Phase and Group Velocities, and Energy Propagation 107
4.2 Dispersive and Non-dispersive Waves 111
4.3 Overview 112
Notes 113
5 Fundamental Prototypes of Tropical Systems 115
5.1 The Laplace Shallow Fluid System 115
5.2 Upper Ocean 118
5.3 A Stratified Atmospheric Model 119
5.4 Forced and Free Solutions and the Choice of H 121
5.5 Some Remarks 123
Notes 123
6 Equatorial Waves in Simple Flows 125
6.1 Atmospheric Modes in a Constant Basic State: Constant U 125
6.2 Atmospheric Waves in Latitudinal Shear Flow: Ū = Ū(y) 144
6.3 Physics of Equatorial Trapping 146
6.4 Large-Scale Low-Latitude Ocean Modes 151
6.5 Overview 157
Notes 158
7 Waves in Longitudinally and Vertically Varying Flows 159
7.1 Horizontal and Vertical Coupling of Equatorial Modes 160
7.2 Coupled Free and Forced Solutions of the Vertical Structure Equation 163
7.3 Wave Characteristics in a Zonally Varying Basic State Ū = Ū(x) 169
7.4 Numerical Substantiation of the Analytic Ray-Tracing Results 176
7.5 Zonally Varying Basic State and the “Longwave Approximation” 181
7.6 Vertical Trapping, Accumulation, and Lateral Emanation 182
7.7 Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO) 183
Notes 184
8 Moist Processes and Large-Scale Tropical Dynamics 185
8.1 Convection and Large-Scale Budgets 186
8.2 Emerging Perspective on Tropical Convection 188
8.3 Comparison of Observed Waves and Waves from Theory 190
8.4 Dry and Moist Modes in the Tropics 191
8.5 Processes 193
8.6 Synthesis 201
Notes 203
9 Extratropical Influence on the Tropics 205
9.1 Lateral Wave Propagation in a Zonally Symmetric Basic State 205
9.2 Equatorial Wave Propagation in a Zonally Varying Basic State 208
9.3 Equatorward Wave Propagation in a Three-Dimensional Basic State 214
9.4 Overview 221
Notes 221
10 Tropical Influence on the Extratropics: A Zonally Averaged Perspective 223
10.1 Axisymmetric Meridional Circulation Models 223
10.2 Zonally Averaged Perspective of Meridional Circulations 225
10.3 Perspective 230
Notes 230
11 A Tropical–Extratropical Synergy 231
11.1 Mean and Transient Potential Vorticity on the 370 K Isentrope 231
11.2 Impermeability 234
11.3 Shallow Fluid Experiments 237
11.4 Recursively Breaking Rossby Waves 240
11.5 Conclusions 241
Notes 243
12 Arid and Desert Climates 245
12.1 Dynamics of Deserts 245
12.2 Radiative and Surface Fluxes 248
12.3 Diurnal Cycle of Divergence 250
12.4 Tropospheric Energy Balance 251
12.5 Nocturnal Stabilization of the Boundary Layer 251
12.6 Desert–Monsoon Relationships 255
Notes 256
13 Near-Equatorial Precipitation 257
13.1 Near-Equatorial Distributions of Precipitation 258
13.2 Dynamic Instabilities Associated with a Cross-Equatorial Pressure Gradient 262
13.3 Transient States of the Intertropical Convergence Zone 280
13.4 The Great Cloud Bands 290
13.5 Some Conclusions 298
Notes 299
14 Large-Scale, Low-Frequency Coupled Ocean–Atmosphere Systems 301
14.1 The Walker Circulation 302
14.2 The Southern Oscillation, El Niño and La Niña 305
14.3 Indian Ocean Interannual Oscillations 332
Notes 342
15 Intraseasonal Variability in the Tropical Atmosphere 345
15.1 Introduction 345
15.2 Structure of the Austral Summer ISV 345
15.3 Variability of Austral Summer ISVs 348
15.4 Mechanisms 351
15.5 Conclusions 358
Notes 358
16 Dynamics of the Large-Scale Monsoon 361
16.1 Overview 361
16.2 Theories of the Monsoon and Its Variability 364
16.3 Macroscale Structure of the Summer Monsoon 374
16.4 Macroscale Structure of the Winter Monsoon 388
16.5 Subseasonal Summer Monsoon Variability 391
16.6 Higher-Frequency Monsoon Variability 400
16.7 Some Comments 405
Notes 405
17 The Coupled Monsoon System 407
17.1 Coupled Characteristics of the Indian Ocean Region 407
17.2 Processes Determining the Indian Ocean SST 411
17.3 Do Ocean Heat Fluxes Regulate the Annual Cycle of the Monsoon? 415
17.4 Variability Within the Coupled Monsoon System 416
17.5 An Holistic View of the Monsoon System 421
Notes 428
18 The Changing Tropics 429
18.1 Tropical Warm Pool 429
18.2 Circulation Changes 438
18.3 Summary and Conclusions 442
Notes 444
19 Some Concluding Remarks 445
Notes 447
Appendix A Thermal Wind Relationship 449
Appendix B Stokes’ Theorem 451
Appendix C Dry and Moist Thermodynamical Stability 453
Appendix D Derivation of the Wave Equation (5.11) 455
Appendix E Conservation of Potential Vorticity of Shallow Water System 457
Appendix F Solutions to the Vertical Structure Equation for a Constant Lapse Rate Atmosphere 459
Appendix G Nonlinear Numerical Model 461
Appendix H Derivation of the Potential Vorticity Equation on an Extratropical β-Plane 463
Appendix I Derivation of the Barotropic Potential Vorticity Equation (13.25) with Friction and Heating 465
Appendix J Steady State Model of the Tropics 467
Appendix K Intermediate Ocean Model 469
References 471
Index 493
Peter J. Webster, PhD, is Professor Emeritus in the School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the Georgia Institute of Technology.
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