Table of Contents

Acknowledgements   1. Introduction 1.1 Natural and environmental setting 1.2 Historical setting 1.3 Previous research 1.4 Research problem   2. Theoretical Framework 2.1 The development of theory in maritime archaeology 2.2 The maritime cultural landscape 2.3 The place of shipwrecks in the maritime cultural landscape   3. Research Methodology 3.1 Underwater archaeological research 3.1.1 Geophysical survey methods 3.1.2 SCUBA diving survey 3.2 The documentary record 3.2.1 Maps, charts, and artwork 3.2.2 Photographs 3.2.3 Wills, deeds, and probate inventories 3.2.4 Traveler’s accounts and ship logs 3.2.5 Newspapers 3.2.6 Public records   4. Economic Components 4.1 The commercial component 4.1.1 Lower Town 4.1.1.1 Archaeological research in Lower Town 4.1.2 Plantations 4.2 The transport and communication component 4.2.1 The roadstead 4.2.1.1 Documentary evidence 4.2.1.2 Archaeology 4.2.2 Shipwrecks 4.2.2.1 Documentary evidence 4.2.2.2 Shipwrecks in St. Eustatius’ archaeological record 4.2.3 From sea to shore 4.2.4 Discussion 4.3 The resource component 4.3.1 Water supply 4.3.2 Provisioning grounds 4.3.3 Fishing 4.3.4 Animal husbandry 4.3.5 Imports 4.4 Conclusions   5. Social Components 5.1 The civic component 5.1.1 Upper Town 5.1.2 Lower Town 5.1.3 Plantations 5.1.4 The roadstead 5.2 The cognitive component 5.2.1 Place names 5.2.2 Religious buildings 5.2.3 The deceased 5.3 The recreative component 5.3.1 Alcohol consumption 5.3.2 Smoking 5.3.3 Parties 5.3.4 Tours and picnics 5.4 Conclusions   6. Political Components 6.1 The defense component 6.1.1 The first fort 6.1.2 A ring of fortifications 6.1.3 The year 1781 6.1.4 Safety on the roadstead 6.2 The power component 6.2.1 Moveable objects 6.2.2 Plantations 6.2.3 Johannes de Graaff 6.2.4 Cemeteries 6.2.5 Military installations 6.3 Conclusions   7. Discussion 7.1 Differing timescales 7.1.1 The defense component 7.1.2 The commercial component 7.1.3 The power component 7.1.4 The resource component 7.1.5 The cognitive component 7.1.6 The civic component 7.1.7 The transport and communication component 7.1.8 The recreative component 7.2 The natural environment 7.2.1 The civic and commercial components 7.2.2 The recreative component 7.2.3 The transport and communication component 7.2.4 The defense and power components 7.2.5 The resource component 7.2.6 The cognitive component 7.3 Overlapping components 7.4 Regional and global context 7.4.1 Shipping and trade 7.4.2 St. Thomas and St. Barths 7.4.3 Bermuda 7.4.4 British North America   8. Conclusion   Bibliography   Appendix I: Bathymetric map Appendix II: Side scan sonar survey area Appendix III: Underwater survey transects Appendix IV: Underwater archaeological sites and artifacts Appendix V: Extent of the roadstead Appendix VI: Shipwreck site drawings, 1987-1988 Appendix VII: Text reference locations

About the Author

Dr. Ruud Stelten (Roermond, 1986) completed BA and MA degrees in Archaeology at the Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University in 2009 and 2010 respectively. Research for his theses focused on maritime archaeology on the Dutch Caribbean island St. Eustatius, where he also worked on his first Caribbean archaeological research projects under the direction of the St. Eustatius Center for Archaeological Research (SECAR). In late 2011, Ruud became the island archaeologist of St. Eustatius, a position he held for two years.

Recognizing the need for sharing archaeological research with the general public, Ruud founded Terramar Museum on Bonaire, an archaeological museum displaying the story of 7,000 years of Caribbean history.